Author: sommera53

Overview

Antibiotic resistant organisms are organisms that develop the ability to combat the antibiotics that were created to destroy them. Antibiotic resistant organisms lead to the emergence of superbugs. Superbugs are particular strains of bacteria that have become resistant to most of the commonly used antibiotics. Antibiotic resistant organisms are dangerous because it leaves us vulnerable to different diseases, since our antibiotics are having lessening effects in combating infectious organisms. According to the CDC, antibiotic resistant organisms are formed essentially through mutations. For example, an antibiotic is given to a patient to rid of an organism. Then that organism mutates and begins producing antibiotic resistant cells. Then those cells replicate and create an antibiotic resistant organism that can spread to other hosts and cause more infections. New antibiotic resistant organisms are emerging, likely because of the misuse of antibiotics (an example being when doctors prescribe antibiotics to be used to treat viruses). Thankfully, there are many people working to raise awareness about misusing antibiotics, Dr. Cramer being a perfect example, since she allows reminds her students to not take antibiotics for illnesses caused by viruses.

If we lose the ability to use antibiotics, our world will be in danger. Resistant organisms can make diseases harder to treat and therefore easier to spread. for many years, scientists and doctors have worked hard to find treatments for different illnesses and it the progression of antibiotic resistant organisms is not slowed down, then all of the work and research will have short lived benefits since those treatments will no longer be effective. As I previously stated, antibiotic resistant organisms are emerging from mutations that lead organisms to reproduce their antibiotic resistant traits. In addition, antibiotics are used in livestock feed. This purpose of this is to help the animals gain weight, so that the producers earn a larger profit. Unfortunately, this only increases antibiotic resistant organisms. Even when meat or poultry are labelled as antibiotic free, it only means that there were no traces of antibiotics in the animal’s body when it was slaughtered, but it does not mean that that animal has not been fed antibiotics. As a vegetarian, I thankfully do not have to worry about this since I do not eat any type of meat.

E. coli: Antibiotic Resistant

E. coli is an organism we have all heard of. This is likely because it is so common, and found in all of our guts. However, specific strains of E. Coli can cause unwanted illnesses or diseases, which according to Medical Press, include urinary tract infections, food poisoning, blood poisoning, or infections in the gut. Unfortunately, antibiotic resistant E. coli is becoming increasingly common, and can even be spread from unsanitary toilets or undercooked meat. The ESBL strain of E. coli a strain that is particularly resistant to antibiotics, including penicillin and cephalosporin. I am worried for the future of our world, if antibiotic resistant organisms keep increasing in number, eventually we may not have a way to treat a variety of diseases, and what will we do then?

What is HPV?

HPV stands for human papillomavirus, which is as scary as it sounds. According to the National Cancer Institute, it is a group of viruses, many of which are transmitted through sexual contact and can cause cancer. HPV is the most common STI (sexually transmitted infection). The most common symptom of HPV is itching and warts in one’s reproductive regions. However, what makes HPV so dangerous is that it is also common to not show symptoms, and therefore, easy to be infected and transmit the disease without knowing so. It is extremely dangerous to women because nearly all cervical cancers are caused by HPV.

HPV Vaccine

There are three HPV vaccines, all of which target the specific strains of the HPV that most commonly cause cancer. Typically, three doses of the vaccine are needed for optimal protection. It is suggested that the doses are received between the ages 9 and 26. It is not recommended to get the vaccine if you are older than 27 years old because the vaccine will not be effective if one has already encountered the virus and if one is sexually active it is extremely likely they have already come into contact with the virus. I am thankful that my parents already opted for me to receive the vaccine, however, even if they had not, I am still young enough that I could receive it not and still receive optimal protection from the vaccine. Also, thankfully the vaccine is extremely effective and therefore highly decreases my chances of getting cervical cancer.

HPV: Human Trials

The HPV vaccine was tested on many humans before before being deemed safe for all. According to the HPV Vaccine Program, it was tested on 20,000 females and 4,000 males before being approved as safe. A common misconception is that the vaccine prevents cervical cancer. The vaccine does not prevent cervical cancer, it just prevents the virus that is the causative agent of cervical cancers. The vaccine is also extremely effective in preventing cervical abnormalities, which is a common symptom of cervical cancers. There is some controversy surrounding the human trials involving the vaccine because of the misunderstood claim to prevent cervical cancer because in order to prove that, cancer would have to be given to participants after receiving the vaccine,a dn that would have been unethical, which is why the vaccine does not claim to prevent cervical cancer.

What is pertussis?

When I first heard “pertussis” in microbiology class, I did not know what it was. I shortly realized that it was more commonly known as “whooping cough,” which I was familiar with. It is known as whooping cough because a major symptom is uncontrolled coughing fits that cause one to inhale deep breaths afterwards, which make a whooping sound. This can be extremely dangerous for babies and young children, making the disease fatal at times. The disease forms when Bordetella pertussis bacteria attach to the lining of the upper respiratory system and cause swollen airways. Unfortunately, the disease is easily transmitted through large droplet nuclei, which is concerning as someone who lives in a dorm, since it is most easily transmitted in large communal living spaces.

Vaccination

Despite how easily pertussis can be transmitted, there is (thankfully) a vaccination. According to the CDC, the vaccination is not 100% effective, but it is still really effective and it will help your body be better prepared to fight off the disease. There are two vaccinations that can be given for pertussis, both of which also include vaccinations for diphtheria and tetanus. The vaccinations are DTaP (given to those under the age of 7) and Tdap (given to those over the age of 7). I remember that in order to attend middle school in my hometown, you had to show proof that you had received the Tdap vaccination. This is a requirement meant to increase herd immunity and I am thankful for it.

Since the disease can be so dangerous to young children, the US Department of Health and Human Services encourage parents to vaccinate their children as early as possible, and they recommend the first DTaP vaccine to be given at 2 months old. After the initial vaccine, it is recommended that kids receive another dose of the vaccine at 4, 6, 15 months, and 4 years old. Then at 11, it is recommended to receive the Tdap booster vaccine. In addition, the Tdap vaccine is recommended and safe for pregnant women to get a booster during each pregnancy. It is so imperative to get the pertussis vaccine since the disease can be so deadly to babies, and the symptoms initially present as cold-like so it is easy to spread the disease without realizing you are doing so. I am thankful my parents chose to vaccinate me and I will be sure my children receive their vaccinations in order to keep them healthy.

Disease Prevention

Polio is a disease that has become less common due to the accuracy of the polio vaccine. Typically, polio causes severe paralysis and muscle weakness, and can be fatal. There are two polio vaccines, and the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia examines both the OPV and the IPV. The first polio vaccine was the IPV (inactivated polio vaccine) and the OPV (oral polio vaccine) came along a few years later. While the OPV is still used in other areas around the world, it is no longer used in the US. This is because of the risk of causing an outbreak of poliovirus that was vaccine derived. Even though the OPV is not used any more here, it was extremely successful in preventing polio. A big reason for this is since it was given orally, it immediately travels to the gastrointestinal tract, which is where the poliovirus replicates. In my opinion, while I am glad OPV helped to decrease the incidence, I am also glad that it is no longer used in the US due to the risk of causing a vaccine derived virus.

Unlike the OPV, the IPV is still used in the US. It is a more typical vaccine since it is given as an injection and works in the bloodstream, rather than the gastrointestinal tract. It works by preventing the virus from spreading from the blood to the typically at risk areas of the body (the brain and the spinal cord). This vaccine is so successful that polio has been eradicated from the US, but unfortunately not from the whole world. The concept of herd immunity, which means resistance to a disease if large portions of populations are vaccinated, is reinforced by this vaccine since it successfully got rid of polio in the US because enough people received the vaccine. I only wish that enough people would choose to get vaccinations, so that more diseases were eradicated from the US, and ideally the whole world.

Polio’s Persistance

Even though polio has not been eradicated from the entire world, it has greatly decreased in prevalence. According to UN News, “the number of affected children having dropped by 99 per cent since 1988” and that there are “less than 40” reported cases in today’s world. I am amazed at how few cases that is and I am hopeful that soon there will no longer be any cases of polio. In addition, two of the three wild strains of polio have already been completely eradicated. This gives me hope that through vaccinations, other diseases can also be eradicated, since this proves how accurate herd immunity can be. However, it is suggested that even if the disease is eradicated, that polio vaccinations still be given. I agree with this since there is no harm in ensuring that polio does not make a deadly return.

Introduction to Our Microbiota

Our human microbiome encompasses all of the microbiota residing inside and on our bodies. Despite how foreign the word “microbiome” sounds, we are supposed to have what is referred to as “normal microbiota” meaning essential and expected microorganisms in our body to help us with different functions. Dr. Cramer teaches in her microbiology class that benefits of the microbiome include aiding digestion, producing by-products, oral tolerance, and fighting off infection. All of these benefits are reasons why I am thankful for my microbiota. But, there are theories that our microbiota are capable of even more than our daily bodily functions. Some scientists believe that understanding our microbiota and learning how to harness its benefits is what will lead to the cure for immunodeficiency disorders, or how to appear younger for longer periods of time. I will be looking into some of the potential “extra” benefits of our microbiota.

Can microbiota keep us younger?

I came across an article from Medical News Today, which grabbed my attention due to its title: Can the gut microbiome unlock the secrets of aging? I would love to know the secret of aging, so I was interested in reading more about how the microbiota could affect it. The article discussed a study on mice, in which there was a transfer of gut microbiota from older mice to younger mice. Increased intestinal growth and neurogenesis was observed in the younger mouse. Through control factors and more testing, it was concluded that with healthy microbiota transplants, results with reflect the state of the microbiota, regardless of the initial state of the recipient. The broad claim that microbiota could potentially keep us younger is born from this idea since theoretically microbiota transplants could create healthy, younger functioning systems in older adults or those with declining systems, could experience improvement with the introduction of healthy microbiota. While I think that the claim the microbiota can keep us younger is a bit ahead of its time, I do think there is the potential for it to be possible in the future after more studies have been conducted.

Upsetting Our Microbiota

For the those skeptical that our microbiota hold the secret to eternal youth, there are still more well developed arguments concerning the importance of our microbiome. One of those arguments comes from the state of dysbiosis. Dysbiosis occurs when there is an imbalance amongst our microorganisms, specifically when bad microbiota begin to outcompete the good microbiota. According to a Very Well Health article, dysbiosis can occur due to the use of antibiotics, poor dieting, substance abuse, and experiencing high levels of stress. The consequences of the unhealthy microbiota outnumbering the healthy microbiota can result in obesity, irritable bowel syndrome, arthritis , eczema, and many other conditions. Overall, I am interested in keeping my microbiome healthy because there are many benefits, such as the prevention of certain illnesses, the normal functioning of my body’s symptoms, and potential undiscovered benefits (like the secret to youth).

Review of 2019 Coronavirus

The 2019 n-Coronavirus is a new virus that emerged in Wuhan, China in recent months. The virus is very dangerous because our immune systems have not built up defenses to it, since we have not yet encountered it. My previous blog discussed the signs and symptoms of it, but in this blog I will cover the changes that have occurred in the week since my last post. Most of the information is still the same, there have not been any major new discoveries involving the virus. This concerns me because I would have hoped that more information about the spread of the disease, or a potential cure would have been discovered at this point.

Updates

In my opinion, the most shocking thing about the novel coronavirus is the high number of deaths it has caused. A recent New York Times article reveals that over 800 have died in China from the virus. That is a scary high number. In addition there are now 37,198 confirmed cases. If so many people are infected, a pandemic can easily arise, meaning the infection spreads internationally, even though as of now it is still relatively contained to China. There are only two reported deaths that occurred outside of China, but still close to China since they occurred in Hong Kong and in the Philippines. Besides this, there have not been more reported deaths outside of China, but there are confirmed cases in other countries, such as in Spain and Britain.

Preventative Measures

Thankfully, many people are working hard to take steps to prevent further spread of this disease. For example, quarantines have been enforced for up to 14 days after flights and ships have arrived in different locations from Wuhan, CHina to ensure no one was transmitting the infection. In addition, evidence is showing that the virus is transmitted through droplet transmission, and the World Health Organization has advice for different ways to prevent the spread of the coronavirus. WHO suggests frequently washing hands with soap and water and maintaining 3 feet of distance between yourself and others, especially if they are showing concerning symptoms (coughing, sneezing, etc.) These two methods are the best defenses against the spread of the virus because it will not allow the droplets to enter your respiratory system. In addition, I would suggest encouraging others sneezing and coughing into their elbows, to minimize the spread of droplets into the air and onto hands, which are easy manners of transmission. I hope that by next week, microbiologists and other scientists will have made progress in finding an effective solution to the novel coronavirus.

The Flu

Everyone has heard about the flu. We are trained to respond with sympathy and concern when we hear that someone we know has the flu. However, when I personally hear about someone I know having the flu, I imagine them missing school/work for maybe a week and then making a full recovery. For many people that is not the reality. Influenza is a potentially fatal infection and I want to bring more awareness to the severity of it.

General Information

Symptoms of the flu are relatively broad. Some symptoms include: fever, sore muscles, congestion, cough, and fatigue. The virus is spread by inhaling droplets and then carrying the virus to the lungs. There is an extremely short incubation period, which means you are likely to know who gave you the virus. Treatment for the flu is largely based on treating the symptoms, but antiviral medications can be relatively effective, but typically only when given early in the onset of the virus.

Statistics

While the symptoms of the flu do not sound too scary, and are things many of us have experienced, the statistics regarding the flu are more reflective of the severity of the virus. For example, according to the CDC via Contagion Live, there has been a large increase in the activity of the flu in the US in the past two weeks, therefore it is an extremely prevalent disease. As a college student, who lives in a dorm and takes five classes, I am worried about how easily this virus can spread through campus. However, the increase of recent flu activity in the US is not the scariest statistic. The most shocking statistics are that during the 2019 – 2020 flu season there have been 19 million reported cases, and of those, there have been 10,000 deaths. These facts shocked me and encouraged me to want to research how to keep myself from being one of the 10,000 people who died from the flu.

Vaccines

Thankfully, there is a flu vaccine that can help prevent getting infected with the flu, or if you get infected it can help your body fight back faster against the virus. All flu vaccines are made based off analyzing which flu strains made an appearance in the previous season. According to the CDC, the 2019 flu vaccine contains components from the H1N1 and H3N2 flu strains. In addition, it is recommended that the vaccine be offered at the end of October. I personally received my flu shot in September, so I was a little ahead of schedule. For people who do not like shots there is even a nasal mist option available in certain areas. Some people argue against getting the vaccination because it will not provide total immunity towards the virus, for example, the CDC still does not know the effectiveness of this year’s vaccine against the flu. However, the vaccine still provides some protection, with a typical effectiveness of about 50%. In addition, as Dr. Cramer would say, you would rather provide your child with some tools to fight off the infection instead of just throwing it to the wolves. Due to the fact that the flu is potentially fatal, and there is a helpful vaccine, I cannot understand why one would choose to not get a flu vaccine.

Introduction

The novel coronavirus is a virus with a large outbreak beginning in 2019., that has not previously been documented. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes the virus as causing a respiratory illness. It originated in Wuhan, China, but has begun to appear internationally. The new coronavirus has been given the name of 2019-nCoV, standing for 2019 novel coronavirus. Coronaviruses are commonly found in animals, especially bats. Since the virus can be transmitted from animals to humans it is zoonotic.

Symptoms and Spread

The only consistent symptoms among patients are fever, cough, and shortness of breath. Unfortunately, the vagueness of these symptoms mean it could be disguised as other diseases with the same symptoms, such as the flu or pneumonia. In addition, some patients have shown no symptoms at all. This also makes controlling the spread of the coronavirus difficult because it can be hard to tell who is infected, until they have already had the chance to spread the virus to multiple other people through droplet transmission, which typically occurs within 3 feet of contact. As a college student who lives in a dorm, I am constantly within 3 feet of people, whether it is in class, the dining hall, or my dorm room. I imagine how easily I could become infected if someone else on my campus had the coronavirus, and that makes me extremely nervous since this disease can be fatal.

Prevention Measures

Since I personally come into close contact with so many people throughout my daily life I became interested in learning how to prevent the spread of the coronavirus. The best methods include: frequently washing hands, covering coughs and sneezes, staying home when sick, and disinfecting frequently touched objects. I am hoping that by being vigilant about these methods, I can keep myself from getting any virus in general. In addition, these prevention methods should be practiced by everyone, but especially immunocompromised people, who according to the World Health Organization are more susceptible to developing the virus. Unfortunately, prevention measures are currently our best response to the novel coronavirus since antibiotics are not effective because it is not a bacteria.

Introduction

Andrew Wakefield is a doctor who studied the measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR vaccine) and incorrectly implied that the vaccine caused autism. His claims are summarized in a VeryWell Health article. Since publishing his study that held an anti-vaccination stance, Wakefield has had his medical license revoked and his paper on the link between autism and the MMR vaccine retracted. In my opinion, losing his medical license is a justifiable punishment since he made incorrect conclusions and due to his status as a doctor, a portion of public trusted his findings leading to the illogical anti-vaccination movement.

1998 Study

The study that Wakefield conducted in 1998 was published in The Lancet, which is a popular British medical journal. In his study, he examined 12 children. All kids had autism and had received the MMR vaccine, which resulted in him suggesting that there was a link between the two. From his study, an anti-vaccination movement was born leading to parents deciding not to vaccinate their children because of the fear that they will develop autism. However, microbiologists teach us that the best way for our immune systems to be able to fight off different infections and diseases, we must be introduced to those diseases so we are prepared to fight them off, and vaccinations are the best way to do so.

Controversy

The largest controversy from Wakefield’s study comes from the fact it was not ethical sound. Wakefield was planning on profiting from litigation driven testing by founding a company that would take advantage of the public’s fear of vaccinations. More controversy comes from the fact that Wakefield’s findings were not verified by other scientists. As a college student, I am constantly told to ensure that any information I am using for an assignment comes from a reliable source and can be verified by other sources. Wakefield should have paid attention to these two pieces of advice before making claims that were not supported by scientific proof. In addition, 10 out of 13 of Wakefield’s co-authors disavowed the article, which reiterates the idea that his conclusions were not supported by sufficient evidence.

Measles, Mumps, and Varicella

The World Health Organization declares that most measles, mumps, and varicella vaccines are live attenuated. This means that the infectious agent is still alive within the vaccination, but it has a reduced virulence so that it is not harmful. While there are vaccines strains for individual vaccines for measles, mumps, and rubella, the MMR vaccine contains a combination of the vaccines strains of the three diseases. In addition the MR vaccine combines vaccine strains of measles and rubella, and the MMRV vaccine combines strains from measles, mumps, rubella, and the varicella Zoster virus. I feel as though the MMRV vaccine is the best vaccine to get, if available, since it will provide the stimulation of antibodies for four different diseases.

While the MMR vaccine does not cause autism, as Andrew Wakefield claimed, local reactions are not uncommon to occur following a vaccination. However, reactions are usually mild and temporary, such as fever, pain at injection site, rash, and occasional serious allergic reactions. Even though these side effects occur relatively frequently, they by no means outweigh the severe consequences of choosing to not receive vaccinations. Actually getting measles, mumps, or rubella and not having the antibodies ready to fight off these infections are the extremely serious consequences of not getting vaccinated. I am thankful my parents had the sense to take me to the doctor as a child to receive all of my vaccinations because now I am still alive and capable of writing this blog.

My Life

My name is Sommer Mitchell and I am a freshman at UNC, working towards a major in nursing and a minor in Spanish for the Medical Professions. I also work at the Carolina Union. I am a member of CPALS, which is a club that volunteers with the pediatric department at UNC Hospital.

Interests

I love to travel. One of my favorite places that I have visited was Zion National Park. I also enjoy running and hanging out with my friends.